Solving Problems With a Distance-Rate-Time Formula

Taking care of Problems With a Distance-Rate-Time Formula In math, separation, rate, and time are three significant ideas you can use to take care of numerous issues on the off chance that you know the recipe. Separation is the length of room went by a moving article or the length estimated between two focuses. It is normally meant by d in math issues. The rate is the speed at which an article or individual voyages. It is generally meant byâ râ in equations. Time is the deliberate or quantifiable period during which an activity, procedure, or condition exists or proceeds. In separation, rate, and time issues, time is estimated as the portion where a specific separation is voyage. Time is normally signified by t in equations.â Unraveling for Distance, Rate, or Time At the point when you are tackling issues for separation, rate, and time, you will think that its supportive to utilize outlines or diagrams to sort out the data and assist you with taking care of the issue. You will likewise apply the equation that settles separation, rate, and time, which isâ distance rate x time. It is condensed as: d rt There are numerous models where you may utilize this equation, all things considered. For instance, in the event that you know the time and rate an individual is going on a train, you can rapidly ascertain how far he voyaged. Andâ if you know the time and separation a traveler went on a plane, you could rapidly calculate the separation she voyaged just by reconfiguring the recipe. Separation, Rate, and Time Example Youll as a rule experience a separation, rate, and time question as aâ word problemâ in arithmetic. When you read the issue, essentially plug the numbers into the recipe. For instance, assume aâ train goes out and goes at 50 mph. After two hours, another train goes out on the track next to or corresponding to the principal train however it goes at 100 mph. What distance away from Debs house will the quicker train pass the other train? To tackle the issue, recall that d speaks to the separation in miles from Debs house and tâ represents the time that the more slow train has been voyaging. You may wish to attract a graph to show what's going on. Sort out the data you have in a graph design on the off chance that you havent tackled these kinds of issues previously. Recall the recipe: separation rate x time While distinguishing the pieces of the word issue, separation is ordinarily given in units of miles, meters, kilometers, or inches. Time is in units of seconds, minutes, hours, or years. Rate is separation per time, so its units could be mph, meters every second, or inches every year. Presently you can understand the arrangement of conditions: 50t 100(t - 2) (Multiply the two qualities inside the enclosures by 100.)50t 100t - 200200 50t (Divide 200 by 50 to settle for t.)t 4 Substitute t 4 into train No. 1 d 50t 50(4) 200 Presently you can compose your announcement. The quicker train will pass the more slow train 200 miles from Debs house. Test Problems Take a stab at taking care of comparative issues. Make sure to utilize the equation that underpins what youre searching for-separation, rate, or time. d rt (multiply)r d/t (divide)t d/r (isolate) Practice Question 1 A train left Chicago and went toward Dallas. After five hours another train left for Dallas going at 40 mph with an objective of finding the principal train headed for Dallas. The subsequent train at long last found the principal train in the wake of going for three hours. How quick was the train that left initially going? Make sure to utilize a chart to organize your data. At that point compose two conditions to take care of your concern. Start with the subsequent train, since you know the time and rate it voyaged: Second traint x r d3 x 40 120 milesFirst traint x r d8 hours x r 120 milesDivide each side by 8 hours to understand for r.8 hours/8 hours x r 120 miles/8 hoursr 15 mph Practice Question 2 One train left the station and went toward its goal at 65 mph. Afterward, another train left the station going the other way of the main train at 75 mph. After the main train had gone for 14 hours, it was 1,960 miles separated from the subsequent train. To what extent did the subsequent train travel? To start with, consider what you know: First trainr 65 mph, t 14 hours, d 65 x 14 milesSecond trainr 75 mph, t x hours, d 75x miles At that point use theâ d rtâ formula as follows: d (of train 1) d (of train 2) 1,960 miles75x 910 1,96075x 1,050x 14 hours (the time the subsequent train voyaged)

Gm 545 You Decide (Economics) Essays

Gm 545 You Decide (Economics) Essays Gm 545 You Decide (Economics) Essay Gm 545 You Decide (Economics) Essay Mr. President, Monetary and financial approach are two manners by which governments endeavor to accomplish full degree of work, monetary development, and value strength. As you know, financial strategy choices are made by the President and Congress and request the utilization of government spending and tax assessment to impact the economy; the money related arrangements are kept up by the Federal Reserve. After cautious thought of the counsel of Economic Advisers and Federal Reserve experts, I arrived at the accompanying resolutions with respect to financial recuperation in The United States: * Executing Expansionary Fiscal Policy, expanding government spending, move installments (Social Security, joblessness pay, and government assistance installments) and diminishing expenses will prompt expanded total interest (Stone, 2008). As opposed to Ms. Lee’s guidance to raise charges and decline government spending, and as per Ms. Tanney, I suggest the inverse: decline expenses and increment government spending. Government spending will, it hypothesis, make new openings as government’s utilization of administrations from development industry increments. A decent motivation for work creation would offer assessment credits to businesses who enlist new, jobless specialists. Diminished assessments, again in principle, will make increasingly dispensable empowering people and enterprises to expand their utilization. Expanded utilization prompts, once more, increment in work creation, corporate benefits, customer certainty, and genuine GDP. On the financial side, the legislature should: * Lower loan cost * Lower save necessities * Purchase government securities in the open market. All these lead to expansionary money related strategy. I can't help contradicting Ms. Lopes’ assessment that The Fed should sell securities, raise saves, and leave loan fees. : Despite what might be expected, buying securities on an open market will builds the measure of cash available for use in the economy. At the point when the Fed builds the cash gracefully, it brings down the loan cost and expands the amount of merchandise and ventures requested at some random value level. Stone, 2008). As proposed by Mr. Burke, bringing down the loan fees and save necessity empowers banks to loan more cash to customers at a less expensive rate since the entrance to save capital progressively available. Lower loan costs energize utilization and venture. As the economy recoups and moves towards full work, the administration ought to rethink expansionary measures, since, over the long haul, these measures can lead towards moved deficiencies and expanded swelling. References: Gerald W. Stone, 2006, Core Economics federalreserve. gov/www. investopedia. com

How Vinyl Chloride in Cigarettes Can Hurt You

How Vinyl Chloride in Cigarettes Can Hurt You Addiction Nicotine Use The Inside of Cigarettes Print The Health Risks of Vinyl Chloride in Cigarettes By Terry Martin facebook twitter Terry Martin quit smoking after 26 years and is now an advocate for those seeking freedom from nicotine addiction. Learn about our editorial policy Terry Martin Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Sanja Jelic, MD on August 05, 2016 Sanja Jelic, MD, is board-certified in sleep medicine, critical care medicine, pulmonary disease, and internal medicine.   Learn about our Medical Review Board Sanja Jelic, MD Updated on February 09, 2020 Nicholas Eveleigh / Photodisc / Getty Images More in Addiction Nicotine Use The Inside of Cigarettes After You Quit How to Quit Smoking Nicotine Withdrawal Smoking-Related Diseases Alcohol Use Addictive Behaviors Drug Use Coping and Recovery Also known as chloroethylene, ethylene monochloride, or monochloroethylene, vinyl chloride is a flammable clear gas or liquid with a mildly sweet odor. Vinyl chloride is a man-made product. It does not occur naturally in the environment. Uses of Vinyl Chloride Until the mid-seventies, vinyl chloride was used in a variety of consumer products, including cosmetics, as a propellant in aerosol cans, and as a coolant. Today, vinyl chloride is most commonly used to make a polymer called polyvinyl chloride (PVC). PVC is found in various plastic products, including wire insulation and packaging materials. Vinyl chloride is also used in the manufacture of cigarette filters. As of Dec. 20, 2019, the new legal age limit is 21 years old for purchasing cigarettes, cigars, or any other tobacco products in the U.S. How It Gets Into the Human Body Vinyl chloride most commonly enters the human body through inhalation: Breathing air close to hazardous waste sites/landfill areas where plastics industries dump waste products.Breathing the air in a contaminated workspace where plastics are produced or used.Breathing cigarette or cigar smoke. Less commonly, vinyl chloride can be ingested when a person drinks water from a contaminated well. Vinyl Chloride in Cigarettes Vinyl chloride can be found in both  firsthand  and  secondhand smoke  in low levels, typically 5 to 30 nanograms per cigarette (a nanogram is 0.000000001 gram). Studies of long-term exposure to vinyl chloride in animals have shown that cancer of the liver and mammary gland may increase when very low levels of vinyl chloride are present in the air (50 ppm). While we do not know how much-inhaled cigarette smoke it takes to manifest the health hazards of vinyl chloride, we do know that it contributes to cancer and is unhealthy to breathe in any quantity. Health Risks   The health risks of exposure to vinyl chloride depend on a number of factors: The amount the person was exposed to.The frequency of exposure.The length of each exposure.The type of exposure; inhalation or ingestion. Other factors that should be taken into account include whether there were other chemicals present at the time of exposure to vinyl chloride, as well as the age, sex, diet and overall health of the person who was exposed. When vinyl chloride enters the bloodstream, it goes to the liver, where its then converted into other substances. Vinyl chloride itself typically leaves the body within a day via the urine, but the substances produced in the liver take longer to exit the body. Some of them are more hazardous to human health than vinyl chloride because they react with chemicals normally present in the body and change how they are used/responded to physiologically. The Link Between Vinyl Chloride and Cancer Vinyl chloride may increase the risk of developing a number of cancers, including: Liver cancerBrain cancerLung cancerLymphomaLeukemia The U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, The International Agency for Research on Cancer, and the U.S. Environmental Production Agency have all recognized vinyl chloride as a known human carcinogen. More Chemicals in Cigarette Smoke To date, research has uncovered more than 7,000 chemicals, including 250 poisonous, and 70 carcinogenic compounds in cigarette smoke, and will undoubtedly reveal more in the future. If you still smoke, please begin the life-saving journey of smoking cessation. Dont delay. Get started on your quit program now. You wont regret it.

The Impact Of Television On Mass Media - 2006 Words

The Impact Television has on Mass Media The invention of the television affected mass media as a whole, as they now see the news, weather, and entertainment through a motion picture screen as compared to just hearing it from the original radio. With the help of inventors and newly evolving technology, the television has become a part of American households. Beyond televisions effects on family life and habits, the new medium had wide-ranging effects on society, including commercial and economic impact. The invention of the radio was a revolutionary invention that helped the television become a reality. With help of many inventors and scientists, the radio was in the process of the making in the early 1800s. German scientist Heinrich Hertz proved the existence of radio waves, where signals were sent by the waves instead of wire. The radio changes sound or signals into radio waves that travel through air, space and solid objects, which then turn back into sound, words, or music when returned to the receiver (â€Å"Television Invention Timeline†). In 1895, Gugliemo Marconi invented the wireless telegraph where he used radio waves to transmit Morse code. By 1906, Marconi shared the Nobel Prize for physics with Ferdinand Braun in recognition of contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy (â€Å"Television Invention Timeline†). In 1920, over 500 stations were broadcasting news; music, sports, drama, variety shows, and by 1930 most households in the U.S and Europ e had at leastShow MoreRelatedHistory of Mass Media1150 Words   |  5 PagesHISTORY OF MASS MEDIA UNIT PLAN LECTURE AND TUTORIAL:- DAY : MONDAY TIME : 8.00 to 11.00 am ROOM : R4.2 OBJECTIVE To introduce students to the historical development of media, including books, newspapers, magazines, radio and TV broadcasting and cinema. 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The Media have becoming one of the most dominant source of education of the 21st century. We could argue that most americans use the media as their main source of information. The side effect on that is the fact that the media is very polarized. With the ongoing polarization, we could hypothesize that people would have been more politically educated and oriented if the media was not infiltrated. Mass media is expected to be educational. PublicRead MoreThe Media And Its Impact On Society Essay1723 Words   |  7 Pagesonce said, â€Å"Whoever controls the media, controls the mind†. The Media have become one of the most dominant source of education of the 21st century. We could argue that most Americans use the media as their main source of information. The side effect of that is the fact that the media are very polarized. With the ongoing polarization, we could hypothesize that people would have been more politically educated and oriented if the media was not infiltrated. 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The Death Of A Classical Music - 1181 Words

Know once you have adopted these three roles, there is another all I would like you to assume, this I think just paints the whole picture, this is sort of the background canvas of which you paint the rest of this portrait. You need to understand something the parents these days have long since forgot, and are going to have to relearn again your grandparents knew this, but today’s generation appearance doesn’t seem to, and that is you do not get to design your children, nature would never have permitted that to, evolution would not have allowed a generation of a species to be so influenced by the previous generation, it hasn’t happened and it doesn’t happen, and it especially doesn’t happen in children, you do not design your children, and†¦show more content†¦What, we learned in the last 20 years, of research in neuroimaging, behaviour genetics, developmental psychology, neuropathology can be boiled down to this phrase, your child is born w ith more than 400 psychological traits, that will emerge as they mature, and they have nothing to do with you. So the idea that you are going to engineer personalities, and IQ and academic achievement skills and all these other things, just isn’t true. Your child is not a blank slate and which you get to write, if you would like to read more about this please read, â€Å"the blank slate†, which is a review of all of this information for parents and why it isn’t true. The better of you is it your child is a genetic mosaic of your extended family, which means this is a unique combination of the traits that run in your family line. I like the Shepherd view, you are a shepherd, you don’t design sheep, the engineering of you make surely responsible for and for everything, everything that goes right and everything that goes wrong. This is my parents come to us with such guilt, more guilt EV than we have ever seen in previous generations. Because parents today b elieve that all about them and what they do, in if they don’t get it right if a child has a disability they’ve done something wrong.When in fact the opposite is true. This is nothing to do with your particular brand of

Profit Maximization Model Free Essays

SAMPLE ANSWER FOR QUESTION 5 Profit-making is one of the most traditional, basic and major objectives of a firm. Profit-motive is the driving-force behind all business activities of a company. It is the primary measure of success or failure of a firm in the market. We will write a custom essay sample on Profit Maximization Model or any similar topic only for you Order Now Profit earning capacity indicates the position, performance and status of a firm in the market. In spite of several changes and development of several alternative objectives, profit maximization has remained as one of the single most important objectives of the firm even today. Both small and large firms consistently make an attempt to maximize their profit by adopting novel techniques in business. Specific efforts have been made to maximize output and minimize production and other operating costs. Cost reduction, cost cutting and cost minimization has become the slogan of a modern firm. It is a very simple and unambiguous model. It is the single most ideal model that can explain the normal behavior of a firm. Main propositions of the profit-maximization model The model is based on the assumption that each firm seeks to maximize its profit given certain technical and market constraints. The following are the main propositions of the model. 1. A firm is a producing unit and as such it converts various inputs into outputs of higher value under a given technique of production. 2. The basic objective of each firm is to earn maximum profit. 3. A firm operates under a given market condition. 4. A firm will select that alternative course of action which helps to maximize consistent profits 5. A firm makes an attempt to change its prices, input and output quantity to maximize its profit. The model Profit-maximization implies earning highest possible amount of profits during a given period of time. A firm has to generate largest amount of profits by building optimum productive capacity both in the short run and long run depending upon various internal and external factors and forces. There should be proper balance between short run and long run objectives. In the short run a firm is able to make only slight or minor adjustments in the production process as well as in business conditions. The plant capacity in the short run is fixed and as such, it can increase its production and sales by intensive utilization of existing plants and machineries, having over time work for the existing staff etc. Thus, in the short run, a firm has its own technical and managerial constraints. But in the long run, as there is plenty of time at the disposal of a firm, it can expand and add to the existing capacities build up new plants; employ additional workers etc to meet the rising demand in the market. Thus, in the long run, a firm will have adequate time and ample opportunity to make all kinds of adjustments and readjustments in production process and in its marketing strategies. It is to be noted with great care that a firm has to maximize its profits after taking in to consideration of various factors in to account. They are as follows – 1. Pricing and business strategies of rival firms and its impact on the working of the given firm. 2. Aggressive sales promotion policies adopted by rival firms in the market. 3. Without inducing the workers to demand higher wages and salaries leading to rise in operation costs. 4. Without resorting to monopolistic and exploitative practices inviting government controls and takeovers. 5. Maintaining the quality of the product and services to the customers. 6. Taking various kinds of risks and uncertainties in the changing business environment. . Adopting a stable business policy. 8. Avoiding any sort of clash between short run and long run profits in the business policy and maintaining proper balance between them. 9. Maintaining its reputation, name, fame and image in the market. 10. Profit maximization is necessary in both perfect and imperfect markets. In a perfect market, a firm is a price-taker and under imperfect market it becomes a price-searcher. A ssumptions of the model The profit maximization model is based on tree important assumptions. They are as follows – 1. Profit maximization is the main goal of the firm. 2. Rational behavior on the part of the firm to achieve its goal of profit maximization. 3. The firm is managed by owner-entrepreneur. Determination of profit – maximizing price and output Profit maximization of a firm can be explained in two different ways.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Total Revenue and Total Cost approach.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Marginal Revenue and Marginal Cost approach. Profits of a firm are estimated by making comparison between total revenue and total costs. Profit is the difference between TR and TC. In other words, excess of revenue over costs is the profits. Profit = TR – TC. If TR is equal to TC in that case, there will be break even point. If TR is less than TC, in that case, a firm will be incurring losses. In this case, we take in to account of total cost and total revenue of the firm while measuring profits. It is clear from  the following diagram how profit arises when TR is greater than that of TC. 2. MR and MC approach In this case, we take in to account of revenue earned from one unit and cost incurred to produce only one unit of output. A firm will be maximizing its profits when MR= MC and MC curve cuts MR curve from below. If MC curve cuts MR curve from above either under perfect market or under imperfect market, no doubt MR equals MC but total output will not be maximized and hence total profits also will not be maximized. Hence, two conditions are necessary for profit maximization- 1. MR = MC. 2. MC curve cut MR curve from below. It is clear from the following diagrams. Justification for profit maximization 1. Basic objective of traditional economic theory. The traditional economic theory assumes that a firm is owned and managed by the entrepreneur himself and as such he always aims at maximum return on his capital invested in the business. Hence profit-maximization becomes the natural principle of a firm. 2. A firm is not a charitable institution. A firm is a business unit. It is organized on commercial principles. A firm is not a charitable institution. Hence, it has to earn reasonable amount of profits. 3. To predict most realistic price-output behavior. This model helps to predict usual and general behavior of business firms in the real world as it provides a practical guidance. It also helps in predicting the reasonable behavior of a firm with more accuracy. Thus, it is a very simple, plain, realistic, pragmatic and most useful hypothesis in forecasting price output behavior of a firm. 4. Necessary for survival. It is to be noted that the very existence and survival of a firm depends on its capacity to earn maximum profits. It is a time-honored hypothesis and there is common agreement among businessmen to make highest possible profits both in the short run and long run. 5. To achieve other objectives. In recent years several other objectives have become much more popular and all these objectives have become highly relevant in the context of modern business set up. But it is to be remembered that they can be achieved only when a firm is making maximum profits. Criticisms 1. Ambiguous term. The term profit maximization is ambiguous in nature. There is no clear cut explanation whether a firm has to maximize its net profit, total profit or the rate of profit in a business unit. Again maximum amount of profit cannot be precisely defined in quantitative terms. . It may not always be possible. Profit maximization, no doubt is the basic objective of a firm. But in the context of highly competitive business environment, always it may not be possible for a firm to achieve this objective. Other objectives like sales maximization, market share expansion, market leadership building its own image, name, fame and reputation, spending more time with members of the family, enjoying leisure, develo ping better and cordial relationship with employees and customers etc. lso has assumed greater significance in recent years. 3. Separation of ownership and management. In many cases, to-day we come across the business units are organized on partnership or joint stock company or cooperative basis. In case of many large organizations, ownership and management is clearly separated and they are run and managed by salaried managers who have their own self interests and as such always profit maximization may not become possible. 4. Difficulty in getting relevant information and data. In spite of revolution in the field of information technology, always it may not be possible to get adequate and relevant information to take right decisions in a highly fluctuating business scenario. Hence, profits may not be maximized. 5. Conflict in inter-departmental goals. A firm has several departments and sections headed by experts in their own fields. Each one of them will have its own independent goals and many a times there is possibility of clashes between the interests of different departments and as such always profits may not be maximized. 6. Changes in business environment. In the context of highly competitive and changing business environment and changes in consumer’s tastes and requirements, a firm may not be able to cope up with the expectations and adjust its policies and as such profits may not be maximized. 7. Growth of oligopolistic firms. In the context of globalization, growth of oligopoly firms has become so common through mergers, amalgamations and takeovers. Leading firms dominate the market and the small firms have to follow the policies of the leading firms. Hence, in many cases, there are limited chances for making maximum profits. 8. Significance of other managerial gains. Salaried managers have limited freedom in decision making process. Some of them are unable to forecast the right type of changes and meet the market challenges. They are more worried about their salaries, promotions, perquisites, security of jobs, and other types of benefits. They may lack strong motivations to make higher profits as profits would go to the organization. They may be contented with only satisfactory level of profits rather than maximum profits. 9. Emphasis on non-profit goals. Many organizations give more stress on non-profit goals. From the point of view of today’s business environment, productivity, efficiency, better management, customer satisfaction, durability of products, higher quality of products and services etc. have gained importance to cope with business competition. Hence, emphasis has been shifted from profit maximization to other practical aspects. 10. Aversion to reduction in power. In case of several small business units, the owners do not want to share their powers with many new partners and hence, they try to keep maximum powers in their hands. In such cases, keeping more power becomes more important than profit maximization. 11. Official restrictions over profits of public utilities. Public utilities or public corporations are legally prohibited to make huge profits in many developing countries like India. Thus, it is clear that a firm cannot maximize its profits always. There are many constraints in the background of multiple objectives. Each one of the objectives has its own merits and demerits and a firm has to strike a balance between all kinds of objectives. How to cite Profit Maximization Model, Essay examples

Measuring tools Essay Example

Measuring tools Essay Either the aim or objective and the type of quantitative approach was clearly stated within the abstract or summary of all the papers. Identification of the purpose and type of research at the beginning of the paper has several immediate advantages and limitations. From a nursing perspective, it is possible to determine if the research is relevant to patients in a particular care setting. However, as McCaughan (1999) points out, subtle differences may only be apparent with further exploration of the study. Secondly, clarity of purpose suggests a well-planned study that will deliver valid and useful data. Thompson (1999) concurs with this view and suggests that without a clear statement of aims the reader is unable to determine whether the research achieves its objectives or not. Furthermore, with unclear aims, there could be a tendency towards data-trawling, which may result in providing spurious results. Although I agree with the views of Thompson (1999) and McCaughan (1999), I believe there can be concerns with stating the type of method used in conducting the research. For instance, there could be a tendency to accept the design at face value or for it to bias the critical analysis of the study. Lais (1998), study is described as a prospective, nonrandomised study. According to Woods and Catanzario (1988), a prospective design aims to observe a sample on at least two occasions over a period of time, the aim being to reduce the likelihood of bias in reporting the relationship between the cause and effect. We will write a custom essay sample on Measuring tools specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Measuring tools specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Measuring tools specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Whereas Lais (1998) study consisted of gathering information for a period of one month and could therefore be called prospective, it is not clear whether all the criteria for a true prospective design were applied or not. However, this is not to say that the research findings themselves would not be valid and reliable. Rather that even though there is a clear statement of the type of research, care must be taken that it does not influence personal judgement or the analysis of the study. Having determined that initially, the information given in the abstract of a study can have advantages and limitations, the next point will briefly consider the value of including or excluding a literature review within the study. LITERATURE REVIEW None of the studies reviewed in this assignment contained a literature review. However, there is some evidence that previous studies had been used to inform the investigations. Homer (1998) refers to previous studies within the methodology section and again in the discussion. The studies referred to are included in the reference list. Although the material in the reference list is relevant to the topic it only contains references for seven previous studies. Similarly, Lai (1998) cites previous studies within the discussion. Again the reference list only contains a few references. On the other hand, Curran et als (2000) study incorporates references to numerous previous work throughout the text. The value of including a literature review in a quantitative study is that it enables the research problem to be put into context or to identify gaps and weaknesses in prior studies so as to justify the current investigation. Also as Carnwell and Daly (2001) discuss it is valuable in demonstrating insight into the current state of knowledge within the relevant field. However, the exclusion of a literature review does not necessarily mean that the researchers did not undertake one. On the other hand, exclusion makes it difficult to determine the reason for undertaking the studies. For example, although, it appears that Lais (1998) study may have been carried out, at least in part, to support a cost saving initiative within his medical centre, none of the referenced material concerns this issue.  However, there is a common understanding throughout the studies regarding the nature of the topic being investigated. In particular, all of the papers acknowledge that peripheral venous cannulae are associated with the development of phlebitis. THEORETICAL/CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Although none of papers (Curran et al 2000, Homer 1998, Lai 1998) identify a theoretical or conceptual framework that guided the research, there is allusion to the principles of some of the theories. For example, Curran (2000) discusses two causes of phlebitis, insertion site infection and physiochemical reactions. Similarly, Lai (1998) refers to infusion-related phlebitis and sepsis. On the other hand, Homer does not appear to refer to any theoretical framework in his study. In conclusion, it does not seem that theoretical models had a major influence on the studies. DEFINITIONS OF PHLEBITIS The studies have all identified phlebitis by using clinical indicators and severity rating scales. However, there does not appear to be common indicators or scales to identify the severity of phlebitis. For example, Lai (1998) has defined phlebitis as a palpable cord or at least two of the following, tenderness, warmth, erythema and induration. There is no particular reference as to the origin of the definition, although it appears to have been adapted from the inflammation scale used by the IV team within the hospital where the study took place. Similarly, the origin of the inflammation scale is not reported. According to Lais (1998) definition, phlebitis would be given a score of 3 or 4. Homer (1998) also defines phlebitis by clinical categorisation and allocating scores. However, the categories and scoring are different to those used by Lai (1998). Using Homers (1998) definition would give phlebitis a score between 2 and 4. Homers (1998) scale is not referenced but a significant difference from the one used by Lai (1998) is the exclusion of induration as a clinical indicator. Curran et al (2000) referred to the existing literature for indications of phlebitis. The eventual approach adopted contained two categories, erythema equal to or extending more than 3cm from the insertion site and/or purulent discharge with either or both being given a rating of 2 if present. Curran (2000) reports that this scale had been used in previous studies and includes references within the text, but does not offer any further information. However, there is no discussion as to any previous validation process that may have been used. As we have seen, phlebitis has been categorised and classified in different ways by different authors unique to their own study. Previous studies may have guided some of the categorisation. For example, Homer (1998) refers to the classification of phlebitis by Maki and Ringer (1991 cited in Homer 1998 p5) and Tager(1983 cited in Homer 1998 p5) but develops his own scale for classifying phlebitis. As a result, there appears to be no consensus of opinion regarding the rating and definition of phlebitis between the studies under review.  As well as impacting on the accuracy of assessing and identifying severity of phlebitis, the lack of a common assessment tool for defining and measuring phlebitis may impact on the generalisability of the research. Campbell (1998) suggests that the use of a uniform scale that measures the degree of phlebitis is also beneficial in providing criteria for standardising documentation. ACCURACY, VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF THE ASSESSMENT TOOL Each of the studies used clinical indicators and a rating scale to determine and measure the severity of phlebitis. The strength and appropriateness of this type of measuring tool has been demonstrated in other quantitative studies within the same field. (Dinley 1976, Maddox and Rush 1977, Baxter Healthcare Ltd. 1988 cited in Campbell 1998 p 1311) However, there are limitations and weaknesses with the tools used in the studies under review. None of the researchers have discussed how validity and reliability was assessed. Although both Lai (1998) and Homer (1998) have used tools that do not appear to have been used in previous situations, there is no report on a pilot study being carried out prior to the main study. Lais (1998) measurement tool has a number of limitations. Within the study Lai (1998) reports that the intravenous site was monitored according to a well-defined inflammation scale and has published the indicators and rating for the inflammation scale in the study. However, the tool that Lai used to obtain the data on phlebitis in his study was not the reported inflammation scale. Lai (1998) appears to have used elements of the inflammation scale and designed a scale that has some differences from the inflammation scale that he reported was used. The inflammation scale uses pain and swelling as clinical indicators but in the scale that was used in the study swelling has been excluded and pain has reduced to tenderness. Another point of concern is the implication that the severity of phlebitis could be measured on a scale designed to measure the presence and severity of inflammation. This may lead to confusion between rating phlebitis and inflammation. In other words, it is not certain that the tool actually used measured what it was supposed to measure. Homer (1998) referred to other studies before adopting a different set of clinical indicators in his scale that he reports as being more rigorous than Maki and Ringers (1991 cited in Homer 1998 p5) scale but less so than Tagers (1983 cited in Homer 1998 p5). However, there does not appear to be any reference to testing validity of the scale. A point of accuracy concerns the use of the scale for measuring infiltration as well as phlebitis. Although, the measuring of infiltration is not mentioned in the discussion section, the methods section gives the grading of infiltration as 1-3. The grading on the scale for phlebitis is 2-4. According to Homer (1998), the majority of the incidences of phlebitis were graded at 2. Consequently, phlebitis and infiltration were both graded as 2 using the same clinical indicators. Again, this raises the point of whether the scale measured what it was supposed to measure. The strength of Curran et als (2000) measurement tool lies in the fact that it had been used in other studies. However, there is no discussion as to the validity or reliability of the tool. It is also unclear as to whether Curran et al (2000) carried out a pilot study or not. There is a reference in the paper to collecting data on forty catheters, which is not the total number of the whole data collection. However, although analysis was carried out on the data collected from this, there is no further discussion. In summary, there appears to be serious weakness and limitations with the accuracy of the measuring tools. Validity and reliability appear not to have been tested. As McCaughan (1999) points out, if measuring tools are not valid then neither are study findings. Error due to the measuring technique used, the instrument itself or the person doing the measuring may affect reliability. Therefore, the next point will consider the issue of interrater reliability.